Iliad Fragments Unearthed from Roman-Era Burial at Oxyrhynchus

27 April 2026

Photo: Leah Mascia

Folded and sealed magical papyrus 36345 (not the fragmentary papyrus containing the Iliad). © Courtesy of the Archaeological Mission of the University of Barcelona.

A sealed papyrus containing fragments of Homer’s Iliad has been discovered on a mummified individual at Oxyrhynchus, offering new insights into funerary practices in Roman Egypt. CSMC alumna Leah Mascia was part of the team that identified and read the text.

Researchers from the University of Barcelonaçs Oxyrhynchus Archaeological Mission, led by Maite Mascort i Roca and Esther Pons Mellado, have announced the exceptional discovery of a sealed papyrus containing part of Homer’s Iliad, Book II—the famous ‘Catalogue of Ships’. The papyrus, preserved in a fragmentary state, was unearthed in Sector 22 of the High Necropolis at Oxyrhynchus, inside a Roman tomb.

The object had been placed on the body of a mummified individual, covering the area between the abdomen and chest. Reports in some media outlets, which widely covered the discovery last week, are inaccurate in one important respect: the fragment was not found inside the mummy, but placed on top of it.

The individual likely died in the first or second century CE. Leah Mascia, a specialist in the material written culture of Greco-Roman Egypt and a CSMC alumna, identified and read the papyrus as part of an analysis team that also included conservator Margalida Munar and philologist Ignasi-Xavier Adiego.

This discovery forms part of a broader group of finds. Between 2020 and 2025, excavations in the Roman tombs of the so-called High Necropolis at Oxyrhynchus have yielded a series of ‘sealed papyri’, all deposited in a similar position on the bodies of the deceased. These materials are currently being studied by Mascia as part of her project ‘The Long Journey to the Underworld’, which began at the CSMC in Hamburg and is now continuing at Freie Universität Berlin.

The corpus, still under investigation, includes Greco-Egyptian magical papyri alongside Demotic and Greek documentary texts. These were arranged in papyrus packets with same characteristics and originally all sealed with clay devices, some bearing hieroglyphic inscriptions. Their consistent placement and method of sealing suggest that these ‘sealed papyri’ were deliberately deposited on the deceased as part of funerary rituals. This likely occurred during the final stages of the embalming procedure. That their placement on the deceased bodies occurred in a mummification workshop is indicated by the fact that they are all produced with similar techniques and sealed with clay devices that can be identified as embalmers’ seals. As the study of the context of discovery and materiality of these written artefacts demonstrates, they were not part of cartonnage and were not used as filling material in the mummification process.

‘The archaeological context and associated objects clearly place these manuscripts within the traditional Egyptian funerary sphere. However, their content is strikingly unconventional and stands as an exception in the repertoire of ritual compositions customarily associated with mortuary procedures in the Egyptian tradition’, says Mascia. ‘In this historical phase, the early Roman period, one would normally expect canonical funerary texts such as the Book of the Dead or the Book of Breathing, which are well attested in burial contexts across Egypt. Instead, the “papyrus packets” bring together a diverse range of texts, including Greco-Egyptian magical papyri, Greek and Demotic documentary papyri, and, in some cases, literary works such as the Iliad fragments recently identified.’

This combination raises important questions about both the production and the intended function of these objects. ‘These “sealed papyrus packets”, which include texts of various genres, may have been regarded as part of an alternative funerary procedure, but this is only a preliminary interpretation’, Mascia points out. ‘The corpus currently comprises 20 “sealed papyri”, most of them fragmentary. Only a comprehensive analysis of all material will make it possible to clarify their function.’

The recovery of these materials required careful coordination. Their position allowed a multidisciplinary team — papyrologists (Leah Mascia), anthropologists (Maria Francesca Pullia and Bibiana Agustí Fargas), and conservators (Bernat Burgaya Martínez, Delia Eguiluz Maestro, and Margalida Munar Grimalt) — to remove them without damaging the human remains. The fragments have since undergone conservation and detailed manuscript analysis. Well-preserved ‘papyrus packets’ have so far been left unopened and are awaiting tomographic analysis. By contrast, fragmentary papyri have been examined using infrared imaging and digital microscopy.

All work has been carried out under a strict protocol that respects both the deceased and the papyrological material. This reflects the CSMC’s broader commitment to clear procedural and ethical standards in excavation and artefact analysis. A central element is the development of minimally invasive, non-destructive methods within the Centre’s threefold Artefact Laboratory system, which integrates approaches from both the natural sciences and the humanities. This is complemented by a dedicated Cultural Heritage unit that provides training-based protective measures in collaboration with international partners and contributes to the development of ethical guidelines.

Mascia has played a key role in advancing this approach in practice. Since 2024, she has led, on behalf of the DAI Cairo, a two-week workshop in Siwa titled ‘How to Apply a Multidisciplinary Approach for Reconstructing the Funerary Landscape of Siwa Oasis’, as well as a second workshop in Saqqara, ‘The New Frontiers of Archaeological Research: How to Apply New Technologies and Natural Science to the Study of Cultural Heritage Artefacts’. These programmes, aimed at inspectors from the Egyptian Antiquities Service, introduce current methods for analysing and conserving graffiti, papyri and parchment manuscripts, and other written artefacts, and include practical training in context analysis, mineralogy, and ink production. They also explicitly address ethical considerations, such as the responsible handling of cultural heritage, data management in line with FAIR and CARE principles, and preventive strategies to minimise environmental damage during excavations.